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From: The Overstory <overstory@agroforestry.net>
Date: Mon, Dec 8, 2008 at 10:40 PM
Subject: The Overstory #213--Urban Forestry for Multifunctional Urban Land Use
To: Taylor Arneson <taylorist@gmail.com>


Publication date: December 8, 2008



The Overstory #213--Urban Forestry for Multifunctional Urban Land Use
                         by Cecil Konijnendijk and Michelle Gauthier


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The Overstory #213--Urban Forestry for Multifunctional Urban Land Use
                       by Cecil Konijnendijk and Michelle Gauthier


Contents:

: CONTEXT
: INTRODUCTION
: TREES AND FORESTS FOR SUSTAINABLE CITIES
: THE CONCEPT OF URBAN FORESTRY
: MAIN PRINCIPLES OF THE CONCEPT URBAN FORESTRY
: THE WORLD'S URBAN FOREST RESOURCES
: REFERENCES
: ORIGINAL SOURCE
: ABOUT THE AUTHORS
: WEB LINKS
: RELATED EDITIONS OF THE OVERSTORY
: PUBLISHER NOTES
: SUBSCRIPTIONS


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CONTEXT

The contributions of forests, trees and other urban green areas to the
quality of urban life and the environment can be significant. When
existing good practices are built upon, urban forestry has shown
significant contributions to the quality of urban life and the
environment, together with other types of comprehensive green-space
planning and management concepts. Through agroforestry systems, for
example, urban forestry and urban agriculture join forces in supporting
livelihoods. Urban forestry has been developed in response to the call
for innovative, comprehensive concepts that promote the multiple
benefits of urban green space. Sometimes named urban and peri-urban
forestry, the concept encompasses the planning and management of forests
and other tree resources in and close to urban areas and thus integrates
different parts of urban green structures.


INTRODUCTION

World-wide urbanisation brings with it a wide range of challenges. The
demand for land increases, and the energy, resource, water and waste
disposal needs of urban populations need to be met. Especially in the
developing world, where most mega-cities are located and urbanisation is
particularly rapid and not necessarily controlled, providing good living
conditions to urban populations is one of the main challenges of our
time (UN Habitat, 2004). Policymakers are facing tremendous pressures to
develop city management strategies that strive for sustainable cities
where all inhabitants can enjoy at least a fair quality of life and a
reasonably healthy environment.

In the quest for healthy, liveable and sustainable cities, urban green
spaces with trees as a major component play an important role. They can
help improve livelihoods, temper harsh urban climates, conserve
biodiversity, and contribute to better human health. During recent
years, integrative and strategic concepts and fields of activity have
been developed and implemented across the globe to promote and develop
tree-based resources catering to multiple urban demands. Urban forestry
is one such promising concept, which in recent years has gained the
capacity to cater to a wide range of urban needs and realities.


TREES AND FORESTS FOR SUSTAINABLE CITIES

Challenges related to urbanisation are very significant. Basic concerns
such as the provision of food, housing, sanitation and employment have
highest priority and are still to be addressed, especially in the
developing countries. Urban green space therefore will only be given
political priority if it can be used to meet these major urban
challenges. Past experience has shown that urban green spaces form more
than just a "supplementary" urban infrastructure and can even help
provide livelihoods. The goods and services provided by forests and
trees in or close to urban centres can be grouped into three main
value-based categories.


--> Economic and livelihood values of urban green

Poverty alleviation and food security are high on the agenda of many
international institutions and development aid programmes. With half of
the world's population living in cities and towns, urban agriculture
plays an important role in this respect. Many countries have a long
tradition of urban dwellers supplementing their diet and/or economy with
local agricultural produce (Urban Agriculture Magazine no. 13. 2004).
Establishing woodlots in villages and close to urban centres relieves
the pressure on natural forests for fuelwood, poles and fodder. Urban
forests can enhance urban agricultural production, primarily in
agroforestry systems (FAO 2003, Akinbamijo, 2004). Growing trees in
combination with other crops or with keeping animals adds value through
enhancement of microclimate and other growing conditions and
diversification of produce, for example. Timber and other wood products
can be very important in urban areas; large parts of the urban
population of Africa, for instance, are still heavily dependent upon
fuelwood. In times of war and conflict city dwellers have often turned
to nearby woodland for illegal cutting of fuelwood, as in the case of
Sarajevo in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the 1990s war that split up
Yugoslavia (FAO, 2005a). Forests and trees also provide non-wood forest
products such as mushrooms, berries, (medicinal) herbs, rattan, seeds,
leaves etc. In the industrialised countries, cities have often turned to
green areas for providing attractive environments for businesses to
settle in and people to live in (Konijnendijk 2003). The generally
positive impact of nearby well-managed forests, green areas and trees on
real estate prices and business development has been documented during
recent years, for instance through hedonic pricing studies (Wolf, 2004;
Tyrväinen et al., 2005).


--> Environmental and ecological values of urban green

Many of the environmental services provided by urban green space are
characterised as climatic or engineering benefits, offering a "green
infrastructure" to cities and towns. Of particular importance in both
the developed and developing world is the role of forest resources in
water management. Many of the world's largest cities rely on fully or
partially protected forests in nearby or more remote catchment areas for
much of their drinking water. Additional protective measures are often
needed to ensure high quality drinking water from these watersheds
(Dudley & Stolton, 2004). Quito in Ecuador is one of several Latin
American cities that has taken active steps, financially supported by
the creation of a water consumption fee, to protect their watershed
forests (Echavarria, 2001). In arid regions, forest shelterbelts around
cities help combat desertification (FAO ,1999). Trees reduce storm water
runoff and can assist with processing wastewater. Urban green also
protects soils and moderates harsh urban climates, for example, by
cooling the air, reducing wind speeds and giving shade (Tyrväinen et
al., 2005). Trees and other vegetation intercept particles and gaseous
pollutants and thus help reduce air pollution, as a study of Beijing,
China, has shown (Yang et al., 2005). Moreover, forests and trees in
cities act as carbon sinks in the equations relevant within the context
of global warming (Johnson & Gerhold 2003). The level of biodiversity of
urban green areas is often surprisingly high, representing nature and
the "wild" close to where people live (Kowarik & Körner 2004, Stewart et
al., 2004).


--> Social and cultural values of urban green

The recreational values of forests, parks, gardens and other urban green
areas are especially well documented in the Western world. Urban
woodland in Europe attracts thousands of recreational visits per hectare
per year (Konijnendijk 2003). The large majority of all recreational use
of forests takes place in areas not more than 1-2 km from people's homes
(Hörnsten 2000). The aesthetic values of trees and green have been known
for centuries; urban green space makes for better, more attractive
cities. Urban green can have a positive impact on people's physical and
mental health by providing settings for physical exercise, reducing
ultraviolet radiation and air pollution, and lowering stress levels (eg.
Grahn & Stigsdotter 2003). By being actively involved in tree planting
and management, local communities can be strengthened and crime rates
can be reduced (Kuo 2003). In many developing countries, trees often
have cultural and spiritual values that could assist new urban dwellers
in finding their place in cities and towns. Today's green spaces and the
way they are used and managed can thus have strong historical roots
(Forrest and Konijnendijk 2005).


THE CONCEPT OF URBAN FORESTRY

Natural resource planning and management in highly dynamic urban
societies are complex activities. Therefore, concepts and strategies
that extend beyond conventional boundaries and involve a wide range of
disciplines as well as stakeholders are needed. In the case of forests,
tree-based systems and other green resources in and near urban areas,
these concepts should recognise the multiple values provided, as well as
the role green spaces can play in sustainable development. For the last
three decades, the social aspects of forestry have been widely
recognised (eg., through social and community forestry), encouraging
fair and equitable sharing of forest benefits by the local population,
access and use rights, and the participation of civil society in
decisionmaking processes related to the sustainable use of tree and
forest resources (Wiersum, 1999). The experience and expertise gained by
community-based forest resource conflict management is most relevant for
land use and land use change issues in urban environments (FAO, 2002a).

In line with the dynamics described above, the concept of urban forestry
has been developed and implemented as a framework for integrated
planning and management of urban (and peri-urban, i.e. adjacent to urban
centres) tree resources. The most widely used definition of urban
forestry was developed by Miller (1997) who calls it "an integrated,
city-wide approach to the planting, care and management of trees in the
city to secure multiple environmental and social benefits for urban
dwellers". Urban forestry, initially developed in North America, has
gradually gained a larger following among scientists and practitioners
across the world, although the precise scope and content of the concept
remain topics of expert debate (Randrup et al., 2005).

Urban forestry is generally considered to encompass all aspects of
establishing, conserving and managing tree systems in or near urban
areas. This implies that it also incorporates growing trees as part of
agroforestry systems and taking care of individual trees through
arboriculture1. The areas of intervention of urban forestry in relation
to the green structure and distribution include three areas: form
design, functions and policies; technical aspects; and management of
both individual trees and urban woodlands see also table 14.1 (Randrup
et al. 2005). Traditionally, the forestry sector neglected the urban
environment, paying more attention to the rural areas. Nowadays, the
sector tends to include more comprehensively the concept of "trees
outside forests" (FAO 2001, FAO & CIRAD 2002), with an improved approach
to landscape management, agroforestry and urban forestry. From the
perspective of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), urban and periurban forestry considers tree-based systems
at large in or adjacent to urban areas (Kotka III 1996; FAO & CIRAD,
2002).


MAIN PRINCIPLES OF THE CONCEPT URBAN FORESTRY

The concept of urban forestry has several main principles, which
include:


--> Urban forestry is integrative and comprehensive

The concept incorporates different green-space elements into a whole
(the "Urban Forest") and thus promotes a holistic view (Mock 2004;
Pauleit et al., 2005). It aims for more integrated land-use systems, for
example by combining forest, agricultural, nature conservation and
recreational areas. It builds on the notion that sustainability of
tree-based systems is not exclusive to forest resources, but also
applies to other systems such as agroforestry systems and lined tree
plantings. Integration also occurs in land ownership, closely related to
legal or customary rights of access to and use of the land, the trees
and their products (tenure aspects).


--> Urban forestry is strategic

Urban forestry envisions development of long-term policies and plans
responding to the needs for tree resources and urbanisation prospects,
connecting to different sectors, agendas and programmes, and taking into
account the continuous tendencies of expansion and densification of
cities (Mock 2004, Ottitsch & Krott, 2005). This is particularly true
when poverty, conflicts and natural disasters force the rural population
to migrate into cities (UN Habitat, 2004b).


--> Urban forestry is multisectoral, multidisciplinary and aims to
become interdisciplinary

Urban forestry is built on the involvement of experts and practitioners
from a wide range of disciplines and professional backgrounds. These do
not only include natural resource professionals, but also planners,
social scientists, economists, and others. Urban forestry thus operates
beyond traditional sectoral and disciplinary boundaries (Miller 1997;
Nilsson et al., 2005).


--> Urban forestry emphasises social inclusiveness

Developing partnerships between different stakeholders is a key element
of urban forestry. While respecting local cultures and traditions, the
concept emphasises the involvement of different segments of local
communities in managing and using tree resources (Mock 2004, Van Herzele
et al., 2005). It promotes decentralisation, public participation,
transparency and accountability, and fair and equitable sharing of
benefits and access to resources. The development of true partnerships
often require the establishment of new institutions, for example
public-private, or new public institutions that involve multiple layers
of government (Jones et al., 2005).


--> Urban forests are multifunctional

Urban forestry caters to the needs of urban society by providing
multiple benefits. These include the various economic and livelihood,
environmental and ecological, and socio-cultural goods and services
urban forests can offer (Mock 2004, Tyrväinen et al., 2005).


THE WORLD'S URBAN FOREST RESOURCES

One of the challenges facing urban forestry is the difficulty to
operationalise the concept. This may partly explain why there is very
limited information available on the extent of urban forest resources.
International, national and even local resource inventories and
monitoring of developments are scarce. One important variable is the
geographical limit of urban (and peri-urban), which varies from one site
to another and in time. Another variable is the type of resources in
terms of tree-based and greening systems being considered. For its
Forest Resource Assessments (FRAs), FAO defines three main categories,
namely "forest and forest land", "other wooded lands" and "trees outside
forests" (Kotka III 1996, Kotka IV 2002). These are all found in urban
and peri-urban areas and include for example parks, gardens and street
trees and agroforestry systems. The FRA's activities and mandate have
increased substantially over the two last decades and FAO has been
requested to pay more attention to aspects such as non-wood forest
products and trees outside forests. Consequently, trees outside forests
comprise an important area for future assessments as mentioned in the
FRA 2000 report (FAO, 2001).

A study by the United States Forest Service (Dwyer et al., 2000) was the
first comprehensive national level assessment of urban forest resources.
A combination of methods was applied, including satellite imagery,
national statistical data and assessments of particular cities or
metropolitan areas. Tree canopy cover was used as a more reliable
indicator than land use types. The assessment showed, amongst others,
that 3.8 billion trees in urban areas cover 27.1 percent of the land,
i.e. about 1 percent of the country.

Europe has not seen countrywide or international comparative assessments
of urban forest resources so far, in spite of some efforts, especially
by the European Environment Agency (Pauleit et al 2005). An explorative
study by Pauleit et al., (2002) used tree canopy cover as an objective
indicator and found municipal canopy cover of selected European cities
to range from 1.5 to 62 percent. In some European cases resource data
has been compiled on specific elements of the urban forest, such as
woodlands within municipal boundaries. From the information available,
be it sketchy and hardly comparable, the significance of urban forest
resources in Europe does emerge. Urban and peri-urban woodland alone
covers several millions of hectares (Konijnendijk 2003).

Urban forest resource information from other parts of the world is even
more difficult to obtain. Some of the sparse insights in Asian urban
forest resources have been provided by Kuchelmeister (1998), Webb (1999)
and Palijon (2004), while more recently an increasing amount of data is
also emerging from China (eg. Jim & Liu 2001; Yang et al., 2005).
Information on urban forest resources in selected cities of northern and
western Africa, Latin America and Central Asian cities have also been
documented through case studies (FAO 1999, CIFOR & IDRC, 2003).

Although information on the natural resource base is scattered or
incomplete, varies in quality and is not adequately disseminated, it can
be concluded that the potential of urban forest resources is
under-developed. The status, size and structure of these resources are
often significant but vary greatly. Findings also suggest that urban
green space is under pressure from other forms of land use in most parts
of the world, although recent afforestation in Europe, for example, has
led to an increase in urban (forest) resources at local level.


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REFERENCES

Akinbamijo Y. 2004. Urban fodder forests in The Gambia. Urban
Agriculture Magazine 13(2004): 20.

CIFOR & IDRC. 2003. Municipal forest management in Latin America. Edited
by Ferroucki L. CIFOR, Bogor.

Dudley N & Stolton S. 2003. Running pure: The importance of forest
protected areas to drinking water. A research report for the World
Bank/WWF Alliance for Forest Conservation and Sustainable Use.
Washington.

Dwyer JF, Nowak DJ, Noble MH & Sisinni SM. 2000. Connecting people with
ecosystems in the 21st century: an assessment of our nation's urban
forests. Gen.Tech.Rep. PNW-GTR-490. US Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, Oregon.

Echavarria M. 2001. FONAG: The Water-based finance mechanism of the
Condor Bioreserve in Ecuador. Case study in online Conservation Finance
Guide. Conservation Finance Alliance, Washington DC. Available from
http://guide.conservationfinance.org

FAO. 1999. Urban and peri-urban forestry: case studies in developing
countries. FAO, Rome.

FAO. 2001. Trees outside forests (TOF): Towards rural and urban
integrated resources management. Contribution to the FRA 2000 report.
FRA Working Papers on case studies. FAO, Rome.

FAO. 2002a. Community-based forest resource conflict management. Volumes
1 and 2. Edited by Meas K, Josayama C, Nielsen E & Viriyasakutorn V.
FAO, Rome.

FAO. 2003. State of the world's forests 2003. FAO, Rome.

FAO. 2005a. State of the world's forest 2005. FAO, Rome.

FAO & CIRAD. 2002. Trees outside forests ­ towards increased awareness.
Conservation Guide no. 35. FAO, Rome.

Forrest M & Konijnendijk C. 2005. A history of urban forests and trees
in Europe. In: Konijnendijk CC, Nilsson K, Randrup TB & Schipperijn J
(eds), Urban forests and trees (Springer, Berlin), pp 23­48.

Grahn P & Stigsdotter UA. 2003. Landscape planning and stress. Urban
Forestry & Urban Greening 1(3): 1­18.

Hörnsten L. 2000. Outdoor recreation in Swedish forests. Doctoral
dissertation. Department of Forest Management and Products, Swedish
University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala.

Jim CY & Liu HT. 2001. Species diversity of three major urban forest
types in Guangzhou City, China. Forest Ecology & Management 146(1­3):
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Johnson AD & Gerhold HD. 2003. Carbon storage by urban tree cultivars,
in roots and aboveground. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 2(2): 65­72.

Jones N, Collins K, Vaughan J, Benedikz T & Brosnan J. 2005. The role of
partnerships in urban forestry. In: Konijnendijk CC, Nilsson K, Randrup
TB & Schipperijn J (eds), Urban forests and trees (Springer, Berlin), pp
187­205.

Konijnendijk CC. 2003. A decade of urban forestry in Europe. Forest
Policy and Economics 5(3): 173­ 186.

Kotka III. 1996. Proceedings of FAO Expert Consultation on Global Forest
Resources Assessment 2000 in cooperation with ECE and UNEP with the
support of the Government of Finland (Kotka III), Kotka, Finland, 10­14
June 1996. Edited by Nyyssönen A, Ahti A. Research Papers No. 620.
Forest Research Institute, Helsinki.

Kotka IV. 2002. Final report of FAO Expert Consultation on Global Forest
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IV), Kotka, Finland, 1­5 July 2002. Available from
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Kowarik I & Körner S (eds). 2004. Wild urban woodlands: new perspectives
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Kuchelmeister G. 1998. Urban forestry in the Asia-Pacific Region: status
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Kuo FE. 2003. The role of arboriculture in a healthy social ecology.
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Mock T. 2004. Building a sustainable urban forest. Urban Agriculture
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Miller RW. 1997. Urban forestry: planning and managing urban
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Nilsson K, Konijnendijk CC & Randrup TB. 2005. Research on urban forests
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Ottitsch A & Krott. 2005. Urban forest policy and planning. In:
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Palijon AM. 2004. Urban forestry in Asia: state of the art. In:
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Tyrväinen L, Pauleit S, Seeland K & de Vries S. 2005. Benefits and uses
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81­114.

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forests and trees (Springer, Berlin), pp 207­228.

Webb R. 1999. Urban and peri-urban forestry in South-East Asia: a
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Wiersum KF. 1999. Social forestry: changing perspectives in forestry
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Agriculture Magazine 13: 31­33.

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3(2): 65­78.


::::::::::::::
ORIGINAL SOURCE

This article was excerpted with the kind permission of the publisher and
authors from:

Konijnendijk, C. and M. Gauthier. 2006. Urban Forestry for
Multifunctional Urban Land Use. In: René van Veenhuizen (editor). Cities
Farming for the Future - Urban Agriculture for Green and Productive
Cities. RUAF Foundation, IDRC and IIRR.
Web: <http://www.ruaf.org/index.php?q=node/961>


::::::::::::::
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr Cecil Konijnendijk, a Dutch national based in Denmark, has studied
and promoted the role of trees and woodland in urban societies
throughout his career. After employment with the European Forest
Institute and the Danish Centre for Forest, Landscape and Planning,
Cecil set up woodSCAPE consult in 2004. His present work includes
training and advising urban forestry professionals, research and writing
about urban forestry issues. He has coordinated several international
networks and research projects within urban forestry, for example for
the International Union of Forest Research Organizations. He is
editor-in-chief of the scientific journal Urban Forestry & Urban
Greening.

Michelle Gauthier a forest engineer graduated of Laval University,
Canada (1978) was first employed by the Ministry of National Resources
in Quebec (Canada). Since 1982 she has been working as international
forestry specialist for NGOs and Private Enterprises (e.g. CECI, CARE
Canada, Roche, and TECSULT Inc.) and bilateral agencies (SIDA and CIDA).
In 1994, she joined the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, based in Rome, Italy; she was seconded to the Secretariat of
the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD/UNEP) from 2001-2003.  She is
Forestry Officer (agroforestry and land use) in the FAO Forest
Management Division, and also in charge of the urban and periurban
forestry programme.


::::::::::::::
WEB LINKS

Resource centre on Urban Agriculture and Forestry (RUAF)
facilitates urban agriculture projects with active
involvement of all local stakeholders (excellent full-text
publications and links page): <http://www.ruaf.org>

TREE LINK provides information, research, and networking for
people working in urban and community forestry:
<http://www.treelink.org/linx/?navSubCatRef=41>

The FAO Programme on Urban and Peri-Urban Forestry:
<http://km.fao.org/urbanforestry/>


::::::::::::::
RELATED EDITIONS OF THE OVERSTORY

The Overstory #193--Trees as Noise Buffers
The Overstory #142--Urban Trees and Forests
The Overstory #126--Trees for Urban Planting
The Overstory #113--Forest Biodiversity
The Overstory #106--Hidden Bounty of the Urban Forest
The Overstory #99--Grey Water for Trees and Landscape
<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory99.html>
The Overstory #87--Urban Forestry
<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory87.html>
The Overstory #72--Microenvironments (Part 1)
<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory72.html>
The Overstory #64--Tropical Homegardens
<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory64.html>
The Overstory #60--Trees as Noise Buffers
<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory60.html>
The Overstory #46--Human Health and Agroecosystems
<http://www.agroforestry.net/overstory/overstory46.html>


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PUBLISHER NOTES


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